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Ecology and Vulnerability Brook Trout
Map displays likely Brook Trout habitat in blue (coldwater fisheries resources streams). Also displayed are streams where Brook Trout have been observed (by Mass DFW personnel) shown in orange. The "Probability of Occurance" map displays current distribution of Brook Trout. Streams in blue are more likely to be inhabited by Brook Trout based on environmental conditions, while streams in yellow are less likely to have Brook Trout. Stream characteristics that help predict whether Brook Trout can be found in each stream include stream size, average air temperature, nearby forest cover, and soil characteristics. Estimates are from the USGS Conte Anadromous Fish Research Center, based on field surveys from Massachusetts DFW and agencies of nearby states CT, NH, VT, and NY. Priority crossings for possible culvert replacement or retrofit on coldwater streams (summer mean temperature < 16C) are represented by blue dots and triangles. If these are not visible, use the plus sign to zoom in. You can layer in locations for the top 5% and 10% of crossings with the highest restoration potential as estimated by landscape modeling. Blue dots are crossings that have been assessed in the field and the potential for restoring aquatic passability is reliable. Blue triangles are crossings that have not yet been assessed and the restoration potential is hypothetical. Data are from a specialized run of Critical Linkages for coldwater streams conducted in 2017.
HideMap displays likely Brook Trout habitat in blue (coldwater fisheries resources streams). Also displayed are streams where Brook Trout have been observed (by...
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Ecology and Vulnerability
Brook Trout
Photo credit: U.S. Forest Service
Background
Brook trout are an economically important game species throughout their native range, which extends south in the Appalachians to Georgia1 and north to... Read More
Background
Brook trout are an economically important game species throughout their native range, which extends south in the Appalachians to Georgia1 and north to the Atlantic drainages of Newfoundland, Labrador, and Quebec2. Brook trout in Massachusetts are found primarily in streams that have cold, highly oxygenated water3. They generally do not tolerate extended periods of water temperatures above 20°C/68°F3, and the ideal temperature for growth and activity is between 12-19°C (53.6-66.2°F)4. Because of their requirements for clean, cold water, brook trout have experienced extensive reductions in distribution and abundance because of habitat degradation1. In Massachusetts, wild, reproducing populations of brook trout have been greatly reduced and the majority that remain are restricted to isolated headwater streams5.
Climate Impacts
This species’ need for cold water implies that there is great potential for climate change to impact brook trout populations. Indeed, modeling studies conducted in various parts of its range, including parts of Canada6 and in the southern Appalachians7, suggest large reductions in future distributions for brook trout. Studies commonly have found that in streams where temperatures exceed 20°C/68°F for extended periods, brook trout are either at low abundance, or are absent altogether8,9,10. Brook trout begin to experience significant mortality as water temperatures approach 25°C/77°F11. However, studies have observed physiological indicators of heat stress in temperatures as low as 21°C/68°F12. These sublethal temperatures are accompanied by decreased feeding, growth, and reproduction13,14. In one Adirondack Lake with marginal temperatures for brook trout, warm temperatures in some years resulted in complete failure to reproduce13.
Some studies have found that different strains of brook trout have different degrees of thermal tolerance, suggesting some limited capacity to adapt to higher temperatures15. Under such conditions, trout seek out thermal refuges such as inflows from cold tributaries or groundwater inputs, where they will aggregate until overall temperatures are more favorable16. However, on a broad geographic scale, distribution is largely defined by temperature constraints16,17, suggesting that adaptive capacity is limited. Additionally, brook trout are able to persist in surprisingly small, isolated populations above barriers in headwater streams18 so there is potential that these trout could continue to remain in isolated pockets in areas where larger populations decline19. While brook trout will likely not disappear from Massachusetts, reductions in suitable habitat are expected.
1. Hudy, M., T.M. Thieling, N. Gillespie, and E.P. Smith. 2008. Distribution, status, and land use characteristics of subwatersheds within the native range of brook trout in the eastern United States. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 28:1069-1085.
2. Ficke, A.D., D.P. Peterson, and W.A. Janowsky. 2009. Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis): a technical conservation assessment. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. Available: <http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/projects/scp/assessments/brooktrout.pdf>. (Accessed on 20 May 2015).
3. Hartel, K.E., D.B. Halliwell, and A.E. Launer. 2002. Inland Fishes of Massachusetts. Massachusetts Audubon Society, Lincoln, MA.
4. Waco, K.E., and W.W. Taylor. 2010. The influence of groundwater withdrawal and land use changes on brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis) thermal habitat in two coldwater tributaries in Michigan, U.S.A. Hydrobiologia 650:101-116.
5. Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture. 2006. Eastern Brook Trout: Status and Threats. Trout Unlimited. Available:< http://easternbrooktrout.org/reports/eastern-brook-trout-status-and-threats/view> (Accessed on 20 May 2015).
6. Chu, C., N.E. Mandrak, and C.K. Minns. 2005. Potential impacts of climate change on the distributions of several common and rare freshwater fishes in Canada. Diversity and Distributions 11:299-310.
7. Flebbe, P.A., L.D. Roghair, and J.L. Bruggink. 2006. Spatial modeling to project southern Appalachian trout distribution in a warmer climate. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135:1371-1382.
8. Kratzer, J.F., and D.R. Warren. 2013. Factors limiting brook trout biomass in northeastern Vermont streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 33:130-139.
9. Stranko, S.A., R.H. Hilderbrand, R.P. Morgan, M.W. Staley, A.J. Becker, A. Roseberry-Lincoln, E.S. Perry, and P.T. Jacobson. 2008. Brook trout declines with land cover and temperature changes in Maryland. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 28:1223-1232.
10. Wehrly, K.E., M.J. Wiley, and P.W. Seelbach. 2003. Classifying regional variation in thermal regime based on stream fish community patterns. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 132:18-38.
11. McCormick, J.H., K.E.F. Hokanson, and B.R. Jones. 1972. Effects of temperature on growth and survival of young brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29:1107-1112.
12. Chadwick, J.G., K.H. Nislow, and S.D. McCormick. 2015. Thermal onset of cellular and endocrine stress responses correspond to ecological limits in brook trout, an iconic cold-water fish. Conservation Physiology 3:1-12.
13. Robinson, J.M., D.C. Josephson, B.C. Weidel, and C.E. Kraft. 2010. Influence of variable interannual summer water temperatures on brook trout growth, consumption, reproduction, and mortality in an unstratified Adirondack lake. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 139:685-699.
14. Warren, D.R., J.M. Robinson, D.C. Josephson, D.R. Sheldon, and C.E. Kraft. 2012. Elevated summer temperatures delay spawning and reduce redd construction for resident brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Global Change Biology 18:1804-1811.
15. Stitt, B.C., G. Burness, K.A. Burgomaster, S. Currie, J.L. McDermid, and C.C. Wilson. 2014. Intraspecific variation in thermal tolerance and acclimation capacity in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis): Physiological implications for climate change. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 87:15-29.
16. Baird, O.E., and C.C. Krueger. 2003. Behavioral thermoregulation of brook and rainbow trout: Comparison of summer habitat use in an Adirondack river, New York. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 132:1194-1206.
17. Meisner, J.D. 1990. Effect of climatic warming on the southern margins of the native range of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47:1065–1070.
18. Letcher, B.H., K.H. Nislow, J.A. Coombs, M.J. O’Donnell, and T.L. Dubreuil. 2007. Population response to habitat fragmentation in a stream-dwelling brook trout population. PloS ONE 2(11):e1139.
19. Kanno, Y., J.C. Vokoun, and B.H. Letcher. 2014. Paired stream-air temperature measurements reveal fine-scale thermal heterogeneity within headwater brook trout stream networks. River Research and Applications 30:745-755.
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Anthropogenic (human-made) and natural barriers prevent dispersal or... Read More
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Anthropogenic (human-made) and natural barriers prevent dispersal or shifts in species' range
- Sensitive to changes in temperature
- Sensitive to changes in precipitation
- Has already experienced slight variations in annual precipitation (over the last 50 years)
- Slightly impacted by changes due to human response to climate change
The factors below decrease this species' vulnerability to climate change:
- Ability to move across the landscape and/or disperse relatively long distances
Sneddon, L. A., and G. Hammerson. 2014. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessments of Selected Species in the North Atlantic LCC Region. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available from: http://northatlanticlcc.org/projects/completing-northeast-regional-vulne...
This species was identified as highly vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Suitable habitat expected to decrease (coldwater streams) ... Read More
This species was identified as highly vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Suitable habitat expected to decrease (coldwater streams)
- Sensitive to increases in water temperature
Adaptation Subcommittee to the Governor’s Steering Committee on Climate Change. 2010. The impacts of climate change on Connecticut agriculture, infrastructure, natural resources, and public health. Available from: http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/climatechange/impactsofclimatechange.pdf
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Very sensitive to changes in temperature
- Natural and... Read More
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Very sensitive to changes in temperature
- Natural and anthropogenic barriers prevent dispersal or shifts in species' range
- Sensitive to changes in precipitation
- Requires specialized habitat
- Depends on natural disturbance likely to be affected by climate change
- Impacted by changes due to human response to climate change
- Sea level rise
- Slight decrease in population or range size is predicted
- Little overlap between current range and range predicted for 2050
The factors below decrease this species' vulnerability to climate change:
- Ability to move across the landscape and/or disperse relatively long distances
Schlesinger, M.D., J.D. Corser, K.A. Perkins, and E.L. White. 2011. Vulnerability of at-risk species to climate change in New York. New York Natural Heritage Program, Albany, NY. Available from: https://connect.natureserve.org/sites/default/files/documents/ccvi_repor...
This species was identified as highly vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Increase in average annual temperature
- Increases in average summer... Read More
This species was identified as highly vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Increase in average annual temperature
- Increases in average summer and average winter temperatures
- More frequent and more intense hot days
- Longer periods of low flows during the summer
- More frequent short-term droughts
- Requires specialized habitat (coldwater streams)
- Sensitive to invasive species? and disease that may increase or arrive with climate change (whirling disease, competition with non-native fish)
- Indirect impacts from hemlock wooly adelgid, which kill trees shading streams (provide temperature reduction)
- Genetic alteration from stocked trout in wild populations
The factors below decrease this species' vulnerability to climate change:
- Ability to move across the landscape and/or disperse relatively long distances (if no barriers exist
Tetratech, Inc. 2013. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources Climate Change Adaptation Framework. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Waterbury, VT. Available from: http://www.anr.state.vt.us/anr/climatechange/Pubs/2013.0610.vtanr.NR_CC_...
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Requires specialized habitat
- Habitat is likely to experience... Read More
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Requires specialized habitat
- Habitat is likely to experience significant declines (by at least two-thirds)
- Species distribution is highly fragmented because of habitat loss or populations that are very spread out across the landscape
- Temperature increases may prevent species from surviving in some life stages
- Growth or reproduction may be harmed by additional stress from high temperatures
- Unable to disperse long distances or move across the landscape as conditions change
- Natural and anthropogenic barriers prevent dispersal or shifts in species' range
Whitman, A., A. Cutko, P. DeMaynadier, S. Walker, B. Vickery, S. Stockwell, and R. Houston. 2013. Climate change and biodiversity in Maine: vulnerability of habitats and priority species. Report SEI-2013-03. Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences (in collaboration with Maine Beginning with Habitat Climate Change Working Group), Brunswick, ME. Available from: https://www.manomet.org/sites/default/files/publications_and_tools/BwHSu...
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Part of life-cycle depends on a very specific feature of the habitat... Read More
This species was identified as moderately vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Part of life-cycle depends on a very specific feature of the habitat
- Species distribution is highly fragmented because of habitat loss or populations that are very spread out across the landscape;
- Temperature increases may prevent species from surviving in some life stages
- Growth or reproduction may be harmed by additional stress from high temperatures
- Dependent on stable hydrology for survival and reproduction (e.g. stream flows)
- Natural and anthropogenic barriers prevent dispersal or shifts in species' range
- Sensitive to change in the timing of seasons and/or other environmental cues
- Sensitive to pests or disease that are likely to increase
- Habitat may be affected by invasive species? that are likely to increase
Note from report: Sea run trout should be separated out and evaluated separately, as they may be more vulnerable to climate change.
Whitman, A., A. Cutko, P. DeMaynadier, S. Walker, B. Vickery, S. Stockwell, and R. Houston. 2013. Climate change and biodiversity in Maine: vulnerability of habitats and priority species. Report SEI-2013-03. Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences (in collaboration with Maine Beginning with Habitat Climate Change Working Group), Brunswick, ME. Available from: https://www.manomet.org/sites/default/files/publications_and_tools/BwHSu...
Although this species was identified as not vulnerable to climate change, the following factors increase vulnerability:
- Anthropogenic and natural barriers prevent dispersal or... Read More
Although this species was identified as not vulnerable to climate change, the following factors increase vulnerability:
- Anthropogenic and natural barriers prevent dispersal or shifts in species' range
- Sensitive to changes in temperature
- Sensitive to changes in precipitation
- Slightly impacted by changes due to human response to climate change
The factors below decrease this species' vulnerability to climate change:
- Ability to move across the landscape and/or disperse relatively long distances
Sneddon, L. A., and G. Hammerson. 2014. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessments of Selected Species in the North Atlantic LCC Region. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available from: http://northatlanticlcc.org/projects/completing-northeast-regional-vulne...
This species was identified as highly vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Very sensitive to changes in temperature
- Natural and anthropogenic... Read More
This species was identified as highly vulnerable to climate change because of the following factors:
- Very sensitive to changes in temperature
- Natural and anthropogenic barriers prevent dispersal or shifts in species' range
- Has already experienced slight variations in annual precipitation (over the last 50 years)
- Sensitive to changes in precipitation
- Depends on natural disturbance likely to be affected by climate change
The factors below decrease this species' vulnerability to climate change:
- Ability to move across the landscape and/or disperse relatively long distances
Byers, E., and S. Norris. 2011. Climate change vulnerability assessment of species of concern in West Virginia. West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Elkins, West Virginia. Available from: http://wvdnr.gov/publications/PDFFiles/ClimateChangeVulnerability.pdf
Related Adaptation Strategies and Actions
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